Effect of Environmental and Task Constraints on Shot Kinematics and Task Accuracy During Tennis Forehands

The sports-performance environment is dynamic and unpredictable, which requires individuals to be adaptable under multiple scenarios (Araújo et al., 2013). To equip athletes to perform well in these dynamic environments, coaches use multiple training tools to develop skills (Busuttil et al., 2024). Two types of tools used in tennis are ball projection machines and grip-specific tools, which have been demonstrated to affect upper-limb kinematics (Busuttil et al., 2023; 2025) and task accuracy (Carboch et al., 2014). This study aimed to understand the effects of grip task constraints on task accuracy and shot kinematics under different ball delivery modalities and shot directions. A convenience sample of 13 right-handed semi-professional tennis players (Mean ± SD; age: 17.2 ± 2.2 years; height: 1.8 ± 0.7 m; mass: 66.7 ± 2.2 kg) participated in the study. Each participant was required to perform ten successful lateral moving tennis forehands, aiming for two 3 x 3-m target zones (Crosscourt and down the line), under two ball delivery (ball machine & racket fed) and grip (normal & gripfixer) conditions. The protocol included a total of eight conditions that were counterbalanced. Performance measures of task accuracy (% in zone) and peak horizontal and vertical racket linear velocity were measured. Three-way ANOVAs were used to assess the main effects of, and interaction between, ball delivery, grip type, and shot direction. There was a significant main effect for ball delivery on task accuracy (p = .039, η2p = 0.045), whereby the racket-delivered condition was ˜5% greater in accuracy compared with the machine-delivered condition (SE = 2.46%). There was also a significant main effect of hitting direction for peak horizontal racket linear velocity (p = .008, η2p = 0.077), whereby the crosscourt condition had greater velocity (1 m/s; SE: 0.319 m/s) compared with the down-the-line condition. There were no significant main effects of grip type (p < .05). These findings detail the importance of manipulating ball delivery and shot direction, regardless of grip type, as they affect accuracy and racket velocity. Understanding these effects is critical for designing representative training that fosters adaptable and transferable tennis skills.