Circular economy approach to eggshell waste utilisation: Insoluble protein extraction and CaCO 3 upcycling for carbonated hydroxyapatite (cHAP)-based fire-resistant wood

Transitioning to a resource-efficient and sustainable circular economy is vital for tackling climate- and environmental-related challenges. This study demonstrates a closed-loop strategy for upcycling agricultural biowaste eggshells. Water-insoluble proteins were extracted from both shell membranes and shell fragments by boiling in water using protein denaturants. The ground eggshells also were used to prepare calcium acetate (Ca(CH3COO)2) and to treat Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) sapwood. Mineralisation of the wood was achieved by performing a two-step impregnation process using aqueous solutions of ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (NH4H2PO4) and Ca(CH3COO)2 salts. Morphological studies revealed the relatively low saturation of wood matrix with mineral, with cell lumina mostly unfilled, while elemental mapping confirmed homogeneous distribution of Ca and P within the wood matrix. Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis revealed that wood treatment resulted in the in-situ co-precipitation of low-crystallinity hydroxyapatite (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2), and spectroscopic analysis indicated carbonate substitution within the Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 crystal lattice, suggesting the formation of carbonated hydroxyapatite (Ca10-x(PO4)6-x(CO3)x(OH)2-x-2y(CO3)y). Microscale combustion calorimeter (MCC) and cone calorimeter (CC) measurements of mineralised wood revealed a reduction in the total heat release (THR) compared with untreated wood, indicating potential for further optimisation of wood modification process. Results suggest that the proposed aqueous solution-based processing approach for converting an abundant resource, chicken eggshells, into value-added products has potential for new technology and bioeconomy development and represents a promising pathway towards improved sustainability.